Interactive And Engagement Has Impacted Marketing Management

Web 2.0, interaction and engagement is a collection of open-source, interactive and user controlled online applications expanding the experiences, knowledge and market power of the users as participants in business and social processes (Constantinides and Fountain, 2008) This report is based on how the web 2.0, interactive and engagement has impacted marketing management through the supply chain, distribution and customer date facilitating. The supply and distribution is focused on the use of advance technology such as GPS tracking and searching engines, which enables customers to locate firms. Also the supply chain focuses on creating value through interactive and engagement with other parties within the supply chain and the end user. Facilitating customer data is based on firms use customer data to identify them, tailor particular information to them etc. Main Distribution and Supply Chain Distribution The web 2.0 and other technology advances now enabled firms to find a wide variety of search engines to find sellers, services, people, location, product information, reviews etc. There are now a variety of Web search engines such as Kompas business directory, business.com, Yell etc. that enable buyers both firms and consumer to find each other. As search engines are becoming more important part in the supply chain firms, it also enables to change information in their research about the type of distributors, quantity and cost. Through the web 2.0, searchShow MoreRelatedHow Social Media Has Impacted Politics Essay1738 Words   |  7 PagesBackground Social media has become a major part of communication today. 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The Changing Graduate Labour Market

Question: Discuss about the UK Labor Market for Graduates? Answer: Terms of Reference The report mainly incorporates the labor market conditions of the English Domiciled graduates and the post graduates and the data that has been included in the report is mainly collected from the Labor Force Survey. The report has also facilitated in conducting an in depth analysis on the labor market indicators over time. The graduates in the present report are referred to as those individuals whose highest qualification is an undergraduate degree at the Bachelors level. Again while analyzing the market condition, it is an important aspect to take into consideration that changes that take place in a quarterly basis are highly reactive to the seasonal variation whereas the changes that take place on a yearly basis emphasize upon providing a clear indication of the overall trend in the labor market of UK. The report while incorporating the study regarding the labor market conditions emphasizes upon coming up with simple outcome measures on the basis of the survey data and it does not control for the differences that tend to exist in the characteristics of the non-graduates and the graduates. So this reveals the fact that the outcomes that have been presented in the report cannot be attributed to the fact that a particular qualification is possessed by an individual but it also takes into consideration various other factors that included the skills, ability, intelligence and experience of the individuals. Methodology The data has been collected from various sources that include the survey data and also collects the facts and information from various published sources like online reports i.e. Graduate Labor Market Statistics which is quarterly publication on the labor market conditions for graduates in UK. The collected facts and data have been analyzed with the help of the secondary quantitative analysis technique. Findings It has been observed that the graduates and the post graduates have been observed to be experiencing a higher rate of employment and are observed that they are mostly employed in high skill jobs. There has been a marginal increase of 87.5% in employment in the working age population of both the graduates and the postgraduates in the last quarter (Wilton, 2011). Moreover it has also been observed that the employment rate for the young graduates is a bit on the lower side in comparison to all graduates even though the gap that exited in the high skilled employment rates has been observed to be around 10 percentage points. The rate of unemployment among the young graduates has been observed to be reducing on a yearly basis of around 1.0 percentage points to 3.9% and thus it can be looked upon as a lowest unemployment rate in the first quarter for the young graduates since in the first quarter if the year 2007, it was recorded to around 3.5% (Gov.uk, 2015). Thus the economic activity on the basis of the qualification and age group of the graduates for the first quarter in the year 2015 can be illustrated with the help of the following graph: [Source: Gov.uk, 2015] Emphasizing upon the annual earnings, it has been observed that the working graduates have experienced a decrease of 500 in their median salary and thus amounted to around 31,000 but then also it can be said that they tend to earn a significant premium in comparison to the non-graduates. On the other hand in case of the post graduates, it has been observed that the earning of the postgraduates has increased by 1000 and thus has amounted to around 39,000. Again taking into consideration the young population, it has been observed that they also tend to experience a similar trend in their earnings in comparison to the working age population. The earning premium between the young graduates and the young post graduates has been observed to be widening to around 4000 in the first quarter of the year 2015 which was around mere 2000 in the previous year (Mar and Liang, 2012). Thus the Median gross annual earnings on the basis of the qualification level and age for the first quarter of the year 2015 can be illustrate with the help of the following graph: [Source: Mar and Liang, 2012] In addition t the above facts, the analysis of the historic trends in the rate of employment and median salaries, it can be said that the graduate labor market has experienced a lot of change over the years and there has also been a significant impact of recession on the labor market. However it is also the fact that the working age population of both the graduate and the non-graduate, the rate of employment has almost returned to its previous levels. Whereas on the other hand the pace of recovery in the employment rate of the postgraduates are recovering at a slower pace. On the other hand it is also observed that the young population tends to experience greater fluctuations in the rate of employment and this is mainly because of the fact that the young individuals are not likely to possess an established long term careers which tend to make the rate of employment depend upon the labor market shocks and seasonal variations (McGuinness and Sloane, 2011). The rate of employment on the basis of the qualification and age group between the years 2006 to 2015 can be illustrated with the help of the following graph: [Source: McGuinness and Sloane, 2011] Thus analyzing the overall scenario, it can be said that the graduates enjoy a significant premium in their earnings over the non-graduates but again in the recent times it has been observed that the gap in the level of earnings between the graduates and the non-graduates working population has narrowed to a large extent. The level of earnings on the part of the graduates has decreased from 55% to 45% between the years 2015 to 2016 but even though there has been significant decrease, the level of earning of the graduates is higher than the level of earnings of the non-graduates (Millard, 2008). Thus the median salaries and the earnings differentials between the years 2006 to 2015 can be illustrated with the help of the following graph: [Source: Green and Henseke, 2014] Conclusion Thus the analysis reveals the following facts: The rate of employment for working graduates in the recent years is observed to be 87.5% and this is highest level observed after the level of 88.3% that was recorded in the year 2007. The rate of unemployment on the part of the young graduates is around 3.9% which is the lowest since the year 2007. References Green, F. and Henseke, G. (2014) The Changing Graduate Labour Market: Analysis Using a New Indicator of Graduate Jobs, published by the Centre for Learning and Life Chances in Knowledge Economies and Societies at: https://www.llakes.org Elias, P. and Purcell, K (2013) 'Classifying graduate occupations for the knowledge society' Futuretrack. Working Paper (5), 1-37 Gottschalk, P. and Hansen, M. (2003) 'Is the proportion of college workers in noncollege jobs increasing?', Journal of Labor Economics, 21(2): 449-471 Gov.uk, (2015). Welcome to GOV.UK: Graduate Labour Market Statistics. [online] Available at: https://www.gov.uk/ [Accessed 13 Feb. 2016]. Mar, D. and Liang, Y. (2012). Labour Market Outcomes for Young Graduates Part A: Main Report. SSRN Electronic Journal. McGuinness, S. and Sloane, P. (2011). Labour market mismatch among UK graduates: An analysis using REFLEX data. Economics of Education Review, 30(1), pp.130-145. Millard, S. (2008). The Great Recession and the UK Labour Market. SSRN Electronic Journal. Wilton, N. (2011). Do employability skills really matter in the UK graduate labour market? The case of business and management graduates. Work, Employment Society, 25(1), pp.85-100.

Effects of Recession on Consumer Behaviour and Impact on Sellers

Introduction Central to all definitions of economic recession is the fact that there is a sudden reduction in economic activities that causes a frightening decrease in the level of spending. The resultant crisis eventually makes life very difficult both for manufacturers and consumers.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Effects of Recession on Consumer Behaviour and Impact on Sellers specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Consumers become more careful in spending while manufacturers have no choice but to spend heavily in advertising and marketing so as to retain their clients and even lure more. According to Jackson (2011), economic recession will occur when two quarters or trimesters of negative economic growth are experienced. During these times, a country will record a substantial drop in the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Fear creeps in and both individuals and businesses are forced to considerably cu t down their spending due to reduced cash flow. When this goes on beyond the two year period, it leads to what is called a depression. Although very scary to think about, recession is seen as part of an ordinary business phase and is to be expected (Huey, 2011). Economies will normally go through a slow period and later pick up. An economic recession will be characterized by among other things; a reduced level of employment opportunities, a slow down in consumer spending, a drastic fall in industrial production, rising cost of food and accommodation and, decreased stock market activities that to a very large extent will affect the stock market performance. It also has negative effects like driving a country deeper into debt (Jackson, 2011). This situation can bring about very unpleasant consequences for businesses and for some situations; it may even lead to a closure of a business (Davis, 2010). Though it is not easy to precisely point out the real cause of recession, the effect is faced across the entire globe (Borade, 2011) and many are affected. Effects of a Recession on Consumer Behaviour According to Krishnan (2009), consumer spending on luxurious commodities is the first culprit that gets affected during periods of economic recession. Given that these are simply desires and not needs, they are mostly purchased based on a consumer’s good judgment.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Consequently, manufacturers and the marketers of such merchandise receive a terrible blow as they are compelled to give discounted offers the may result into horrifying loses. Manufacturers, sellers and consumers of these goods often end up playing games to outsmart one another. Consumers will keep speculating hoping to see a fall in prices while on the other hand, producers and sellers will make efforts to keep prices lower and give attractive offers to c ustomers with a hope that in due course they will be able to clear any remaining stock. The postponement by the consumers always leaves retailers at a loss as they are sometimes forced to lower prices even further (Krishnan, 2009). Even though people will do just about anything during hopeless moments to continue existing, most manufacturers as well as marketers will choose to go against this popular belief to survive. They become more creative when it comes to dealing with the consumer. One survival tactic employed by many businesses in times of economic recession to get consumers to buy their commodities is to create artificial shortages that later have the effect of increasing demand for goods, forcing the consumer to dance to the manufacturer’s tune (Krishnan, 2009). Usually, the retailers will purpose to keep only a small quantity of the luxurious goods in stock and in this way, they are able to greatly influence consumer behaviour. The fake shortage creates panic among consumers and they are duped to think that there is a real scarcity. They are therefore, coerced to rush for commodities fearing that they might not be able to see them for an indefinite period of time. Using this approach, producers ensure that they are able to sell their products. Borade (2011) argues that consumers must take a hard line stance when budgeting in the face of economic recession. There is a need for carefulness in planning on the part of the consumer. It is also important that one consolidates assets besides reducing liabilities as much as possible. Some suggestions that have been fronted when it comes to dealing with economic recession include; exchanging one’s savings for gold or silver, drawing a clear distinction between commodities that one cannot do without and desires or wishes, bulk buying and being able to store items that can stay for much longer durations, changing from the use of fuel guzzlers to much cheaper cars and avoiding the use of plastic mo ney (Borade, 2011).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Effects of Recession on Consumer Behaviour and Impact on Sellers specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Huey (2011), consumers during economic recession will more often than not, take time to figure out the best way to ensure that they can benefit more from use of their money. Impact of a Recession on Sellers Davis (2010) observes that when sales go down, the manufacturer is bound to also go slow on employing new staff or may stop employing altogether. A number of important undertakings such as carrying out research and development, introducing new products into the market or purchasing new equipment to strengthen operations will also suffer. Expenditures meant to go into advertising and marketing will are subject to huge reductions. These cost cutting measures in the end negatively impact on other businesses that supply big manufacturers with g oods and services (Davis, 2010). Davis (2010) further argues that as revenues decline, and this is reflected in financial reports, the stock price may go down leading to decreased dividends available for shareholders. This development could upset the shareholders and the result will be loss of confidence in the existing team of management. The advertising agency offering services to the affected company will also be rendered jobless while internally, the advertising and marketing team may face extinction. Valuable shareholder may settle on selling their shares in the company to reinvest in other better performing stocks (Davis, 2010). According to Huey (2011), manufacturers and consumers cut down spending causing throwing marketers into a panic. With marketing budgets being reduced, it becomes very critical that marketers reconsider their marketing plans so as to continue living even beyond the recession. The firm may also end up being bankrupt and this will eventually damage its cr edit rating hence preventing any additional borrowing (Davis, 2010). The business may resolve to lower the number of employees and the result of this may be overloading the remaining small number of employees with work. Fears of more job loses could demoralize the remaining staff (Davis, 2010).Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Quality of goods and services during economic recession may suffer greatly due to attempts to cut down costs (Davis, 2010). Spending less money on advertising and marketing means that consumers are not made fully aware of the firm’s products and also advertising firms will face the risk of business loss as there will be no money coming their way. In the study by Huey (2011), all marketers should be familiar with four major trends that influence the success of marketing activities. If well understood, this will greatly help marketers to engage in marketing operations that work during recession. Rather than respond in an emotional way to situations in times of recession, it is recommended that marketers should be tactful in marketing their commodities (Huey, 2011). Research undertaken showed that during recession, manufacturers who opted to increase their marketing expenses realized growth in their sales revenue far much higher than those who chose to reduce advertising costs ( Huey, 2011). By increasing their marketing activities, these manufacturers also benefited by seeing their market share experience an upward rise. Conclusion Without adjusting marketing strategies to address the new market environment during recession, a company is bound to suffer significantly. History has it that those companies that do not shy off from aggressive marketing end up raising both sales and market share leading to high long term profits. Any company that seeks to cut down spending on either advertising or marketing loses out on opportunities for growth. Such a company may suffer even more after the recession is over. It is therefore very necessary that manufacturers take time to think before resolving to trim down important expenses such as those that support marketing operations (Huey, 2011). It is also essential for marketers to understand consumer behaviour so as to devise the strategies to battle it out in the market place. Following the traditional approach to mar keting will be a sure way to destruction. References Borade, G. (2011). How to Survive an Economic Depression. Web. Davis, M. (2010). The Impact Of Recession On Businesses. Web. Huey, C. (2011). Recession Marketing – 9 Survival and Growth Strategies. Web. Jackson, J. (2011). Economic Recession – Impacts of Economic Recession on Employment Nowadays. Web. Krishnan, R. H. (2009). Influencing Consumer Behaviour – Retailers Respond to Recession. Web. This research paper on Effects of Recession on Consumer Behaviour and Impact on Sellers was written and submitted by user Nightmare to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Civil Disobedience essays

Civil Disobedience essays What rhetorical strategies were applied by Martin Luther King Jr. in Letter from Birmingham Jail and which of those was likely most important in influencing the readers of that time? In Birmingham, Ala., in the spring of 1963, King's campaign to end segregation at lunch counters and in hiring practices drew nationwide attention when police turned dogs and fire hoses on the demonstrators. King was jailed along with large numbers of his supporters, including hundreds of schoolchildren. His supporters did not, however, include all the black clergy of Birmingham, and he was strongly opposed by some of the white clergy who had issued a statement urging the blacks not to support the demonstrations. From the Birmingham jail King wrote a letter of great eloquence in which he spelled out his philosophy of nonviolence. This essay, entitled Letter From Birmingham Jail demonstrates Kings exceptional literary prowess by his mastery of several rhetorical strategies to persuade. Kings rhetorical strategy to influence his audience in Letter From Birmingham Jail is that of a three-pronged approach. In an effort to aid in King's goal to alter societal structure, its evils, and its balance of power, he attempts to appeal to the logical, emotional and as well as spiritual side of his critics. Kings first presents an appeal to our logic or reasoning. He does this by effectively showing a direct relationship between the reasoning for his position against segregation and its resulting actions of passive resistance by those oppressed by it. Dr. Kings appeal to our logic is most evident when he gives the reasoning for his statement "I have almost reached the regrettable conclusion that the Negro's great stumbling block in his stride toward freedom is not the White Citizen's Counciler or the Klu Klux Klanner, but the white moderate, who is more devoted to 'order' than to justice" *. He dedu...

Missions to Nicaragura Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Missions to Nicaragura - Research Paper Example Solving the problems faced by the people of Nicaragua as well as improving their life was the main aim of the mission groups. One of the mission groups is a BIMI mission group. The BIMI for Nicaragua is a Baptist international mission group that started its mission work in 1962. The mission group was started by Bob and Sabina Dayton. The main aim of BIMI mission group is to bring together and support missionaries and mission projects that were still going on in Nicaragua (BIMI, 2003). The group supported different mission groups in order for them to be in a position to serve better the people of Nicaragua. Another mission group is Nicaragua mission project which is a Christian movement mission that started in 1960s as a ministry to prisoners. The mission started with the name â€Å"the Christian mission in the jails†, and their founders were Rev Marceline Davila Castillo, a pastor in assemblies of God and Antonio Martinez who belonged to church of Nazarene. The group’s objective is to solve the problems faced by residents of this country by improving their life (Lubensky, 1999). The mission group goals were to build churches in order to spread the gospel and reach to people in all areas in that country. The group aimed at reinforcing ecumenical associations as well as promoting growth of churches as well as their communities. The group is a combination of various organizations such as CEPAD (Evangelical council of Nicaragua), Latin American council of churches, Disciples of Christ, united church of Christ and Christian Pentecostal church of Cuba. It has partnered with worldwide ministries for many years. The mission group started their mission by building churches, building bible schools for the people of Nicaragua and creating children’s programs (Baptist International Missions Inco, 2003). In its mission work, the missionary

Write a 1.5 page memorandum Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Write a 1.5 page memorandum - Essay Example Each author employs, in his own right, extremely ridiculous scenarios and/or ironic character development which ultimately serves to belittle and criticize the society in and about which they were written, in this case early 18th century Britain. In A Modest Proposal, Swift, in order to criticize and make public the English crown’s shameful policy and practices towards Ireland, employs irony. So as to address the rampant and widespread poverty of Ireland, he sagaciously proposes that England ought to begin eating the children of mendicant women so as to alleviate the need to feed them. That is, Swift declares that cannibalism is the answer to solving poverty. â€Å"....[A] young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing, and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee or a ragout† (Swift 1949, p. 883). Swift is counting on the reader to be so disgusted by the idea that he/she will find solace in the criticism he makes of the English landed gentry, which is in fact the true intent of the work. He writes, â€Å"I grant this food will be somewhat dear, and therefore very proper for landlords, who, as they ha ve already devoured most of the parents, seem to have the best title to the children† (Swift 1949, p. 883). The proposal is ridiculous only to make a point: the aristocrats, having exploited the poor, would not mind also enjoying the â€Å"benefit† of their offspring. In similar fashion, John Gay’s The Beggar’s Opera employs satire for the purpose of social criticism. Opera, for the most part, has traditionally been the preserve of the well-to-do. Gay, knowing that his audience would include many members of the upper classes, creates characters and settings which highlight the abject poverty in which much of England’s poor lived. It opens with the narrator, intentionally chosen to be a beggar, stating â€Å"If

Fundamental Types Of Distortion Engineering Essay

Fundamental Types Of Distortion Engineering Essay The high localised heating required in welding joint edges cause non-uniform stresses in the component and lead to expansion and contraction of the heated material. Initially, compressive stresses are created in the surrounding cold parent metal when the weld pool is formed due to the thermal expansion of the hot metal (heat affected zone) adjacent to the weld pool. However, tensile stresses occur on cooling when the contraction of the weld metal and the immediate heat affected zone is resisted by the bulk of the cold parent metal. The magnitude of thermal stresses induced into the material can be seen by the volume change in the weld area on solidification and subsequent cooling to room temperature. For example, when welding CMn steel, the molten weld metal volume will be reduced by approximately 3% on solidification and the volume of the solidified weld metal/heat affected zone (HAZ) will be reduced by a further 7% as its temperature falls from the melting point of steel to room temperature. If the stresses generated from thermal expansion/contraction exceed the yield strength of the parent metal, localised plastic deformation of the metal occurs. Plastic deformation causes a permanent reduction in the component dimensions and distorts the structure. Fundamental Types of Distortion Three fundamental dimensional changes that occur during the welding process cause distortion in fabricated structures: 1. Transverse shrinkage perpendicular to the weld line 2. Longitudinal shrinkage parallel to the weld line 3. Angular distortion (rotation around the weld line) These dimensional changes are shown in 1 and are classified by their appearance as follows: (a) Transverse shrinkage. Shrinkage perpendicular to the weld line (b) Angular change (transverse distortion). A non-uniform thermal distribution in the thickness direction causes distortion (angular change) close to the weld line. (c) Rotational distortion. Angular distortion in the plane of the plate due to thermal expansion. (d) Longitudinal shrinkage. Shrinkage in the direction of the weld line. (e) Longitudinal bending distortion. Distortion in a plane through the weld line and perpendicular to the plate. (f) Buckling distortion. Thermal compressive stresses cause instability when plates are thin. Figure Various types of weld distortion Contraction of the weld area on cooling results in both transverse and longitudinal shrinkage. Non-uniform contraction (through thickness) produces angular distortion in addition to longitudinal and transverse shrinkage. For example, in a single V butt weld, the first weld run produces longitudinal and transverse shrinkage and rotation. The second run causes the plates to rotate using the first weld deposit as a fulcrum. Hence, balanced welding in a double side V butt joint can be used to produce uniform contraction and prevent angular distortion. Similarly, in a single side fillet weld, non-uniform contraction produces angular distortion of the upstanding leg. Double side fillet welds can therefore be used to control distortion in the upstanding fillet but because the weld is only deposited on one side of the base plate, angular distortion will now be produced in the plate. Longitudinal bowing in welded plates happens when the weld centre is not coincident with the neutral axis of the section so that longitudinal shrinkage in the welds bends the section into a curved shape. Clad plate tends to bow in two directions due to longitudinal and transverse shrinkage of the cladding; this produces a dished shape. Dishing is also produced in stiffened plating. Plates usually dish inwards between the stiffeners, because of angular distortion at the stiffener attachment welds. In plating, long range compressive stresses can cause elastic buckling in thin plates, resulting in dishing, bowing or rippling. Distortion due to elastic buckling is unstable: if you attempt to flatten a buckled plate, it will probably snap through and dish out in the opposite direction. Twisting in a box section is caused by shear deformation at the corner joints. This is caused by unequal longitudinal thermal expansion of the abutting edges. Increasing the number of tack welds to prevent shear deformation often reduces the amount of twisting. Angular Distortion (Hirai and Nakamura 1955) conducted an investigation to determine the values of the angular change in a free joint and the coefficient of rigidity for angular changes under various conditions. 2shows the values of angular change as a function of plate thickness, t (mm), and weight of electrode consumed per weld length, w (g/cm). In order to convert from w to the size of the fillet weld, Df (mm), the following formula may be used: Where ? = density of weld metal, ?d = deposition efficiency. The fillet size, Df, is commonly used in design work, while w is easy to determine in a welding experiment. Figure Angular change of a free fillet weld in steel The results shown in 2 were obtained using covered electrodes 5mm in diameter. The maximum angular changes were obtained when the plate thickness was around 9mm. Then the plate was thinner, the amount of angular change was reduced with the plate thickness. This is because the plate was heated more evenly in the thickness direction, thus reducing the bending moment. When the plate was thicker than 9mm, the amount of angular change was reduced as the plate thickness increased because of increased rigidity. Previous two dimensional investigations (Duffy 1970; Shin 1972) of out-of-plane distortion of welded panel structures have shown that distortion increases with span length, and size of fillet weld. The investigations also indicated that there is a peak in distortion around 10mm plate thickness with lower distortion for thicknesses of 6mm and 14mm. Buckling Distortion When thin plates are welded, residual compressive stresses occur in areas away from the weld and cause buckling. Buckling distortion occurs when the specimen length exceeds the critical length for a given thickness in a given specimen size. It is important to determine whether distortion is caused by buckling of bending. Buckling distortion differs from bending distortion in that: 1. There is more than one stable deformed shape 2. The amount of deformation in buckling distortion is much greater Since the amount of buckling distortion is large, the best way to avoid it is to properly select such structural parameters as plate thickness, stiffener spacing and welding parameters. Extensive experimental and analytical investigations described in (Masubuchi 1970) conducted at Kawasaki heavy Industry clearly indicate the existence of a critical buckling heat input for given conditions. The critical buckling heat input decreases as plate thickness decreases and free span increases. For a given panel size the critical values for the heat input, are not affected by plate thickness. The critical heat input for buckling is little affected by the difference in welding process. Longitudinal and Transverse Shrinkage Twisting Contraction of the weld area on cooling results in both transverse and longitudinal shrinkage, whereas non-uniform contraction (through thickness) produces angular distortion. For example, in a single V butt weld, the first weld run produces longitudinal and transverse shrinkage and rotation. The second run causes the plates to rotate using the first weld deposit as a fulcrum. Hence, balanced welding in a double side V butt joint can be used to produce uniform contraction and prevent angular distortion. Similarly, in a single side fillet weld, non-uniform contraction produces angular distortion of the upstanding leg. Double side fillet welds can therefore be used to control distortion in the upstanding fillet but because the weld is only deposited on one side of the base plate, angular distortion will now be produced in the plate. Residual Stress The temperature distribution in the weldment is not uniform as a result of local heating (by most welding processes), and changes that take place as welding progresses. Heat-affected zones of the weldment and the base metal immediately adjacent to the welded area are at a temperature substantially above that of the unaffected base metal. Compressive stresses are created in the surrounding cold parent metal, when the weld pool is formed due to the thermal expansion of the hot metal (heat affected zone) adjacent to the weld pool. As the molten pool solidifies and shrinks, it begins to exert shrinkage stresses on the surrounding weld metal and heat-affected zone. However, tensile stresses occur on cooling when the contraction of the weld metal and the immediate heat affected zone is resisted by the bulk of the cold parent metal. Residual stresses in weldments have following two major effects: First, they produce distortion. Distortion is caused when the heated weld region contracts non-uniformly, causing shrinkage in one part of the weld to exert eccentric forces on the weld cross-section. The weldment strains elastically in response to these stresses. The distortion may appear in butt joints both as longitudinal and transverse shrinkage and as angular change (rotation) when the face of the weld shrinks more than the root. The latter change produces transverse bending in the plates along the weld length. Distortion in fillet welds is similar to that in butt welds. Transverse and longitudinal shrinkage as well as angular distortion results from the unbalanced nature of the stresses in these welds. Since fillet welds are often used in combination with other welds in a weldment, the specific resulting distortion may be complex. Secondly, residual stresses may be the cause of premature failure in weldments. If the stresses generated from thermal expansion/contraction exceed the yield strength of the parent metal, localised plastic deformation of the metal occurs. Plastic deformation causes a permanent reduction in the component dimensions and distorts the structure. Residual stresses The residual stresses in a component or structure are stresses caused by incompatible internal permanent strains. They may be generated or modified at every stage in the component life cycle, from original material production to final disposal. Welding is one of the most significant causes of residual stresses and typically produces large tensile stresses whose maximum value is approximately equal to the yield strength of the materials being joined, balanced by lower compressive residual stresses elsewhere in the component. Tensile residual stresses may reduce the performance or cause failure of manufactured products. They may increase the rate of damage by fatigue, creep or environmental degradation. They may reduce the load capacity by contributing to failure by brittle fracture, or cause other forms of damage such as shape change or crazing. Compressive residual stresses are generally beneficial, but cause a decrease in the buckling load. Residual stresses may be measured by non-destructive techniques, including X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction and optic magnetic and ultrasonic methods; by locally destructive techniques, including hole drilling and the ring core and deep hole methods; and by sectioning methods including block removal, splitting, slicing, layering and the contour method. The selection of the optimum measurement technique should take account of volumetric resolution, material, geometry and access. Prediction of residual stresses by numerical modelling of welding and other manufacturing processes has increased rapidly in recent years. Modelling of welding is technically and computationally demanding, and simplification and idealisation of the material behaviour, process parameters and geometry is inevitable. Numerical modelling is a powerful tool for residual stress prediction, but validation with reference to experimental results is essential. Allowing for residual stresses in the assessment of service performance varies according to the failure mechanism. It is not usually necessary to take account of residual stresses in calculations of the static strength of ductile materials. Design procedures for fatigue or buckling of welded structures usually make appropriate allowances for weld-induced residual stresses, and hence it is not necessary to include them explicitly. Residual stresses have a major effect on fracture in the brittle and transitional regimes, and hence the stress intensity, K, or energy release rate, J, due to residual stresses must be calculated and included in the fracture assessment. K or J may be obtained as a function of stress distribution, crack size and geometry by various methods, including handbook solutions, weight functions, and finite element analysis. Residual stresses in as-welded structures may be minimised by appropriate selection of materials, welding process and parameters, structural geometry and fabrication sequence. Residual stresses may be reduced by various special welding techniques including low stress non-distortion welding (LSND), last pass heat sink welding (LPHSW) or inter-run peening. They may be relaxed by thermal processes including postweld heat treatment and creep in service, or by mechanical processes including proof testing and vibratory stress relief. Different stress relief treatments are appropriate in different applications. The effectiveness of the treatment may be reduced or the residual stresses may be increased if the treatment is not applied properly. Specialised processes are available for inducing beneficial compressive residual stresses, including peening, shot blasting, induction heating stress improvement (IHSI), low plasticity burnishing (LPB) and mechanical stress improvement procedures (MSIP ).